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 Systems
Theory
Primary
contributors
Key concepts of Systems Theory
Gestalt theory
A system is a structure of organized parts,
all of which have slight to greater differences.
No system exists in isolation.
Pressures for change come from outside a
system or component and from the top down.
Pressures for change come from within a system
and from the bottom up.
The functioning of a system effects multiple
other systems and is effected by multiple other systems
The interaction among systems creates a constant
state of change.
A system tends to be self-organized and to
remain stable.
A system exerts forces on other systems and
receives the pressures of forces from other systems.
Description of Systems Theory
Hegel, the 18-th century German philosopher,
articulated the key notion of systems theory. He suggested
that the whole is more than the sum of its parts, that the
whole determines the nature of the parts, and the parts
are dynamically interrelated and cannot be understood
in isolation from the whole (Banathy, in Handbook: Systems
Inquiry and Its Application in Education). Call it gestalt.
Systems theory was proposed by the biologist
Ludwig von Bertalanffy. Instead of reducing a biological
system, such as a plant or animal, to parts (organs or cells),
systems theory accepts that each identifiable component
is related to other parts. The entire system works
together but each sub-system is identified by the unique
activity that occurs within it.
He also emphasized the importance of
systems as open, meaning they can acquire qualitatively
new properties through emergence. In systems theory,
at least in the beginning and prior to manufacturing applications,
the intention was to see systems as integrated wholes instead
of disassembled parts.
Systems theory advocates simplification and
de-contextualization in education, which is a similar notion
in systems theory, a form of reductionism.
A learning organization is a Gestalt; it must
shift from seeing itself as separate from the world to connected
to the world, from seeing problems as caused by someone
or something ‘out there' to seeing how the actions
of educators create the problems. A learning
organization is a place where people are continually discovering
how they create their reality. And how they can change
it.
Systems theory emerged as a science of production
during World War II when manufacturers of war material were
interested in finding the most efficient and rapid methods
of output. A system is investigated by analyzing each
subordinate component, reducing systems to components, sometimes
without regard for interactions within the larger system.
A component is a part of a larger system that can be identified
as a relatively independent part. Thus, the heart
or a kidney can be regarded as sub-systems in the body,
and each college and department on a college campus can
be thought of analogously as sub-systems. A component
can be identified as a unit in which most of the activity
occurs within the unit but the inputs and outputs are related
to other units or the entire system.
Systems have four major characteristics:
- Systems are goal oriented (either by evolution or design)
- Systems have inputs from their environment.
- Systems have outputs to achieve their goals.
- There is feedback from the environment about the output.
As applied to a College, the IT program has
a boundary within which almost all interactions occur between
and among the professors. Most of the contact on a
daily basis involves the professors and students.
Beyond the boundary is the larger organization, which is
also comprised of sub-systems with boundaries. Some
have more interaction at the boundaries than others, such
as among those programs in where support is provided for
other student majors. There are sources of inputs,
such as resources and directives, and outputs, where an
output from IT may be an input for another program or an
input or output for the entire system (graduated student).
There is a hierarchy, which in this case is imposed by the
culture of the organization.
Following the Gestalt principle, a system,
once organized, is not simply a collection of parts but
a functional entity that has properties that cannot exist
independently as a collection of parts.
Origins as defined
by contributors
Hegel
18th century German idealist
philosopher , the first to suggest a holistic view approach
to understanding the dynamic interrelationship of parts
to a whole.
Zalai
Hungarian philosopher, 1913-14, perhaps
the first to use the term general theory of systems
in his writings about dynamic science of complex wholes,
universal structural regularities, and basic laws of organization.
von Bertalanffy
In the 1940s (and earlier), in Germany,
Ludwig von Bertalanffy began publishing papers on the
theory of general systems, in which he (prophetically
in many cases) laid down some of the criteria of such
a theory. He pointed out that the fundamental tool of
general systems theory was the system of differential
equations, but any such set of equations robust enough
to describe non-trivial systems was unsolvable. Therefore,
intuition and computer simulation should play important
roles in a theory of complex systems.
Cannon
By the 1930's, when electronics was still
young, electrical network theory had developed, and the
select few who studied it began to understand self-correcting
systems. Doctors also tended to gain this intuition, and
in 1932 physician Walter Cannon in The Wisdom of the
Body coined the term homeostasis to describe this
phenomenon.
McCulloch
By the late 1940's, thanks mostly to the
growth of electronics, a lot of people were running around
with the idea that "feedback" was somehow important.
One of them was Warren McCulloch, a pioneer brain researcher
who first proposed the mathematical modeling of neurons.
Wiener
In 1948, mathematician Norbert Wiener, published
a book in which he purported to name a new field of inquiry
— Cybernetics. Cybernetics is concerned with the
understanding of self-organization of human, artificial,
and natural systems; the understanding of understanding.
Boulding
One of the pioneers with Von Bertalanffy,
Rappoport, and Gerard, Boulding (1956) underscored the
need for a general theoretical framework that discusses
the general relationships of the empirical world. At it's
highest level of optimism, GST could become like a "spectrum"
of theories — a system of systems that may perform
a ‘gestalt' in theoretical frameworks.
Checkland
1981 — defines Human Activity Systems
(HASs), as manifested through the perception of human
beings who are free to attribute meanings to what they
perceive. HASs are structured sets of people who make
up the system, together with their activities: processing
info, making plans, performing, and monitoring performance.
Designed soft-systems model.
Ackoff
Along with Emery (1972) characterize human
systems as purposeful systems whose members are also purposeful
individuals who intentionally and collectively formulate
objectives and are parts of larger purposeful systems.
Designed A model for the design of idealized systems.
Banathy
(1991) Clarified social systems design as
a means for people to envision the future, their own expectations,
and the expectations of their environment. A manifestation
of open-system thinking and soft-systems approaches, which
enables us to align our social systems with new realities
of the information/knowledge age.
Relevance of Systems Theory to ISD
Systems theory suggests that schools be managed
more like organizations, where teachers are accountable
for their students' results, curriculum stresses critical
thinking skills, and learning is learner-centered.
It is important when considering the application of systems
theory to innovative or renovative educational programs
to realize the importance of each part to make the whole
and the necessity of eliminating the parts not making positive
contributions. The goal of applying systems theory is to
increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the total system
(school) via the development of manageable subsystems (teams
or groups within the school system) with common focuses
or purposes. Reigeluth presents an intriguing case for Educational
Systems Design based on some of these premises.
An advantage of systems theory is a bottom
up approach to change. Applying systems theory gives the
students (and educators, who are learners as well) cohesion
to disparate facts giving them better problem solving skills.
It also increases the understanding of relationships between
systems. It encourages students to change from being passive
absorbers of information to active learners seeking knowledge.
Instructional systems design is about change;
first in learning outcomes, then teaching/instructional
strategies, and then environment. There are a number of
change models to help
guide the instructional designer. At any level, change is
difficult to guide in a positive direction when other systems
either don't support it or are outwardly against it. Change
must occur at the higher system level (department, college,
university, higher education, culture, society) in
order to work at the micro level (learner, teacher,
classroom).
Systems theory allows the instructional designer
to conceive of the bigger picture and opportunities to affect
change at the higher level where their educational
system comes into contact and exchanges force
and pressure with other systems.
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