Cognitive learning theory, also known as "The Theory of Meaningful Learning"

Primary contributors

Key Concepts

Description

If I had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, I would say this: The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly" (Ausubel, Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View, 1968)

Ausubel's theory primarily addresses cognitive learning, that is, the acquisition and use of knowledge. The theory also relates to affective learning and has implications for psychomotor learning, since physical activity requires some cognitive processing. Romiszowksi (1999) describes research on the stages of learning physical skills. Stage 1 involves the use of cognitive skills for acquiring knowledge of what should be, to what purpose, in what sequence, and by what means.

The key idea in Ausubel's theory is the concept of “meaningful learning." Meaningful learning, according to Ausubel, is a process controlled by the learner in which new information is related to an existing relevant aspect of the learner's knowledge structure. In other words, the learner connects the new piece of information to information already known. Call it assimilation of new information into existing knowledge frameworks.

The process of assimilation strengthens the learner's overall knowledge structure and in particular, the linkages connecting the new knowledge and existing knowledge. The result is an improved capacity to recall that new information, thus making the learning process of obtaining the new information, meaningful. Meaningful learning is comprised of three components: learner's relevant prior knowledge, meaningful material, and learner choice to use meaningful learning.

Meaningful learning vs. rote learning. Rote learning has negative consequences for acquisition of organized knowledge that facilitates new learning and creative problem solving. Rote learning often leaves out the underlying reasons for rules, practices, and procedures, which facilitate individual thinking and creative application of knowledge to novel situations.

 

The Assimilation Theory of Meaningful Learning has six basic principles:

Subsumption: Derivative & Correlative
In general, this is the core of Ausubel's assimilation theory of learning. Existing concepts are subsumers of new concepts, that is, the existing concept provides a base for linkage between the new information and previously acquired knowledge. The process is interactive, slightly altering both the subsuming concept and the newly stored information.

Derivative subsumption
Describes the situation in which the new concept (information) that is learned is an instance or example of a concept that has already been learned. For example, a learner has acquired a basic concept such as "fish," where they know that a fish has scales, fins, gills, and lives in the water. Next, they learn about a kind of fish they have never seen before—a clown fish—that conforms to their previous understanding of fish. The learner's new knowledge of a clown fish is attached to their concept of fish, without substantially altering that concept. So, an Ausubelian would say that the learner had learned about clown fish through the process of derivative subsumption.

Correlative subsumption
Now, let's suppose the learner encounters a new kind of fish that doesn"t have fins, like an eel. In order to accommodate this new information, they have to alter or extend their concept of fish to include the possibility of no fins. They have learned about this new kind of fish through the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense, it could be implied that this is more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept.

Obliterative Subsumption
It's a fact that learners will forget information sometime after it is learned. In Ausubel's theory, the variation in the amount of recall depends mostly on the degree of meaningfulness associated with the learning process. By contrast, information learned by rote cannot be appropriately subsumed in the learner's cognitive structure. Information that is learning meaningfully can usually be recalled weeks and months later.

Progressive Differentiation
As meaningful learning happens, development and elaboration of subsuming concepts naturally occurs. In other words, it is a process of refinement of the concept meanings in cognitive structure, which adds more precision and specificity to those concepts. Call it progressive differentiation. Ausubel believes concept development occurs best when the most general, most inclusive concepts are introduced first and then these concepts are progressively differentiated, that is, elaborated with more detail and specificity. For example, "fish" is an inclusive concept with classes (bony skeleton, cartilage skeleton) and subclasses. Reigeluth based his Elaboration Theory on this principle.

Integrative Reconciliation
Integrative reconciliation is another form of cognitive differentiation in which crosslinkages that are formed and new interrelationships are established between concepts in the cognitive structure. For example, dolphins live in water and have other attributes associated with the concept "fish," but are mammals instead and therefore have more in common with land-based mammals than fish.

Superordinate Learning
Superordinate learning occurs when new concepts are constructed that pull together and integrate large domains of knowledge that were not previously recognized as intimately related. For example, a learner was well acquainted with sharks, rays, and skates, but did not know, until they were taught, that these were all examples of fish with cartilaginous skeleton. In this case, the learner already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but did not know the concept itself until it was taught to them. This is superordinate learning.

Advance Organizers
Ausubel is perhaps best known for his idea of an advance organizer, but this is only a small part of the assimilation theory. An advance organizer helps learners bridge the gap between knowledge they already possess and new knowledge to be learned. To be effective, advance organizers must meet two requirements: 1) the learner's specific existing relevant conceptual and propositional knowledge must be identified. And 2) the new knowledge must be properly organized and sequenced to optimize the learner's ability to make the connection of new knowledge to existing concepts and propositions. [A tough task!]. In brief, advance organizers are effective because they activate the learner's prior knowledge.

Issues

Ausubel does not advocate discovery learning or embrace the new trends in educational practice for learner-centered instruction, he supports the use of direct instruction methods, such as lecture. He argues that large bodies of content knowledge are best obtained through this type of learning.

He does acknowledge problem-solving abilities must be taught, but these are secondary to the schools" responsibility to transmit content.

Ausubel advocates reception learning, a highly individual activity, which conflicts with the recent drive for more active student involvement.

He does not stress the social aspects of learning, nor does he extend a student's existing cognitive structure to include prior experiences.

Relevance to ISD

Ausubel gave descriptive meaning to the concept "meaningful learning" and offered a sensible construct for how educators could achieve it. 

Ausubel's work influenced Novak's concept mapping strategies and Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory, which are both useful for helping the learning grasp  and organize the broad and narrow concepts related to a knowledge domain.

By implementing Ausubel's Advance Organizer Model, teachers can assist their students in developing stable, clear concepts and propositions in their cognitive structures, which will used as anchors for future knowledge.

Merlin Wittrock's (1974a) Generative Learning Model and resultant Generative Learning Strategies is based the principles of meaningful learning.