ISD Knowledge Base - Cognitivism

Type of theory

Learning theory

Primary contributors

Key Concepts

Description

Cognitive development theories first identify the capabilities that represent the highest levels of human thought. Then they describe the events and conditions necessary to attain these levels of thinking. Schools may facilitate the process, however the implication is that higher levels of human thinking cannot be taught directly (Gredler, 1997). Cognitive psychologists share with behaviorists the belief that the study of learning should be objective and that learning theories should be developed from the results of empirical research.

However, cognitivists differ from behaviorists in one critical respect. By observing the responses that individuals make to different stimulus conditions, cognitivists believe that they can draw inferences about the nature of the internal cognitive processes that produce those responses.

Cognitive theories of learning focus on the mind (the mind is a "black box" according to behaviorist views), and attempt to model how information is received, assimilated, stored, and recalled.  The implication is that by understanding the mechanics of this process, we can develop teaching methods more suited to fostering the desired learning outcome, which is a shared desire with behaviorists. 

Cognitivists argue that while things like the environment are important inputs to learning, learning is more than simply the collection of inputs and the production of outputs.  The mind has the ability to synthesize, analyze, formulate, and extract received information and stimuli in order to produce things that cannot be directly attributed to the inputs given.

Under cognitive learning theory, it is believed that learning occurs when a learner processes information. The input, processing, storage, and retrieval of information are the processes that are at the heart of learning. The instructor remains the manager of the information-input process; but the learner is more active in planning and carrying out his/her own learning than in the behaviorist environment. Instruction is not simply something that is done to a learner but rather involves the learner and empowers their internal mental processes.

According to Gredler (1997), six of seven contemporary theories influential in learning are based on the cognitivist perspective.

Information Processing System

The Information Processing System is a model for describing how information is received (through the sensory registers), transferred into short-term or working memory, and ultimately placed in long-term memory for later retrieval and further use. 

Metacognition

Metacognition—the awareness and ability to control cognitive processes—is a component of the various cognitive theory applications.  This "thinking about thinking" allows one to better manage his own learning, and take an active, rather than passive role in the assimilation process.  This metacognition would include various techniques for enhancing memory such as the chunking or grouping of information in some meaningful way to make it ‘more memorable' or the repetitiveness of repeated rehearsal to hold some key fact in short term memory for immediate usage.

Origins

Early behaviorists chose not to incorporate mental events into their learning theories, arguing that such events were impossible to observe and measure and so could not be studied objectively. However, during the 1950s and 1960s, many psychologists became increasingly dissatisfied with such a "thoughtless" approach to human learning. As a result, major cognitive works began to emerge. The work of the Gestalt psychologists, Edward Tolman, Jean Piaget, and verbal learning researchers was laying a foundation for cognitive learning theories. During the 1960s, discontent with the inadequacies of behaviorism became more widespread. The behaviorist perspective could not easily explain why people attempt to organize and make sense of the information they learn or why people often alter the form of information they learn. One example includes remembering general meanings rather than verbatim information. Among learning psychologists there emerged a growing realization that mental events or cognition could no longer be ignored. By the 1970s, most learning theorists had joined the cognitive field of thought. In the 1980s three cognitive theories gained prominence: Bandura's social-cognitive theory, Weiner's attribution theory, and Vygotsky's sociohistorical theory.

Tolman

Edward Tolman, developed the concept of cognitive learning in research where he found that rats used in an experiment appeared to have a mental map of the maze he was using. When he closed off a certain portion of the maze, the rats did not bother to try a certain path because they "knew" that it led to the blocked path. Visually, the rats could not see that the path would result in failure, yet they chose to take a longer route that they knew would be successful. Therefore, Tolman thought of learning as developing from bits of knowledge and cognitions about the environment and how the organism relates to it. This was in contrast to the theories of Thorndike and Hull who thought of learning as a strict stimulus-response connection.

Bruner

Jerome S. Bruner called for a theory of instruction in 1960. Bruner who stressed the element of social interaction as an integral part of information processing first espoused interactional cognitive development theories. Bruner developed the discovery theory of learning, which he defined as obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one's own mind (Bruner, 1961). Bruner contended that a true act of discovery is not a random event. It involves an expectation of finding regularities and relationships in the environment. He endorsed problem solving with structured searching strategies is an integral part of discovery learning. The roots of constructivism are evident in discovery theory.

Bandura

Bandura's social-cognitive theory addresses the issues that the social settings in which individuals live, work, and play are powerful influences on behavior, attitudes, and beliefs about one's self and the world. The primary point is that individuals learn from observing the behaviors of others and the social consequences of those actions.

Weiner

Bernard Weiner's attribution theory is a theoretical framework for understanding what learner's believe causes their achievement. The framework focuses on the ways that individuals arrive at causal explanations. This is relevant to ISD because it has (1) implications for strategies to alter misperceptions and (2) provides a framework for understanding different classroom goals.

Vygotsky

Lev S. Vygotsky is another prominent cognitivist, namely because of his sociohistorical theory that stresses cultural processes determine the nature of learning. Vygotsky introduced the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in which the learner, teacher, and content interact with a problem that needs resolution. Vygotsky (1978) maintained the child follows the adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help or assistance. He called the difference between what a child can do with help and what he or she can do without guidance the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). In other words, ZPD is the discrepancy between children's actual mental age and the level they reach in solving problems with assistance. This ZPD concept also reinforces the importance of the principle of readiness. The readiness principle reinforces the need for a learner to be at a point of readiness for learning certain material. Another basic principle introduced by Vygotsky is the general law of genetic development, which describes the social process of cognitive development. It states that every complex mental function was first an interaction between people. Bruner also believes the learner's participation in culture aides their psychological development. Much of Vygotsky's work influenced the constructivist paradigm.

Piaget

Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmentalist, began a research program during the 1920s that has had the greatest impact on contemporary theories of cognitive development than that of any other single researcher. He developed his cognitive theory by actually observing children. After many years of observation, Piaget concluded that intellectual development is the result of the interaction of hereditary and environmental factors. As the child develops and constantly interacts with the world around him, knowledge is invented and reinvented. In Piaget's Theory of Development, there are two cognitive processes that are crucial for progressing from stage to stage: assimilation, accommodation.

Relevance to ISD

Cognitivism refocuses research on the mind in the learning process, which the behaviorists had neglected to address. The results of cognitive theory research are widely applied in instructional technology, particularly with respect to how learners organize and synthesize information to facilitate their own learning, as well as how to teach higher order learning outcomes (analysis, synthesis, evaluation).

The discovery learning theory is a forerunner to constructivist thinking of learning and recognizes that knowledge is constructed by the learner in their own mind (i.e., knowledge structures). Instruction based on discovery learning requires a skilled facilitator and guide.

Although much of Piaget's work is no longer held in high regard, it still stands as an influential factor for understanding that children have developmental phases. Instructors can design their content to best suit the individual learner's particular phase.

Vygotsky's work shows educators that the best way to lead a learner to acquiring new knowledge is to guide them to the place just beyond what they already know, the Zone of Proximal Development.

Bandura's social-cognitive theory puts every classroom instructor in the spotlight for students to see what a teacher acts like. This theory, if even partially reliable, has tremendous impact on how students are taught. Clearly, students are learning about how to approach education, teaching, and learning itself, from the modeled behavior of the instructor. Instruction now takes on the personal aura of conveying an educator's behavioral characteristics, not just the plain content.

Educational psychology, as it is taught today, gives great credence to the cognitivist theories. Instructional system design is dependent on the educational psychology foundation to generate methodologies and models for the design and delivery of instruction.