ISD Knowledge Base / Behaviorism

Psychological learning theory (behavioral psychology, behaviorist theory of psychology)

Primary contributors

Behaviorist researchers who had a relevant impact on learning and instruction:

John Watson (1913), classical conditioning	Clark Hull (1935), hypothetico-deductive method
Edward L. Thorndike (1898), instrumental conditioning (connectionism)	Edwin Gutherie (1940), contiguity theory
	B.F. Skinner (1930), operant conditioning

Key Concepts

Classical conditioning

Watson's work is based on Pavlov, but focused on human behavior, not including any mental processes. All organisms adjust to the environment through responses (Watson, 1913), thus leading to predictions of behavioral outcomes.

Preexperimental (‘natural") relationship		Experimental trials		Postexperimental (conditioned) relationship
Unconditioned (eliciting) Stimulus [UCS]	Associated Reflex Response [UCR]	Paired Stimuli	Reflex Responses	Conditioned Stimulus [CS]	Conditioned Reflex [CR]
Meat powder	Salivation	Meat powderTuning fork	Salivation	Tuning fork	Salivation
Air puff	Eye blink	Air Puff, bright Light	Eye blink	Bright light	Eye blink

Watson predicted conditioning would allow him to train infants to become any type of specialist. It was believed (not proven) that conditioned responses would add up to complex voluntary behavior.

In the classroom, applications of classical conditioning include associating student's early experiences with learning subjects like art or science with positive reactions.

Connectionism

Thorndike's research with the puzzle box focused on voluntary behavior of hungry cats to escape a cage to get to food. Connections were established between particular stimuli and voluntary behaviors. Thorndike indentified the law of effect, the law of exercise, and the law of readiness.

The law of effect states that a satisfying state of affairs following the response strengthens the connectino between the stimulus and the behavior, whereas an annoying state weakens the connection.

The law of exercise describes the conditions implied in the saying, "practice makes perfect." Repitition of the experience increases the probability of a correct response.

The law of readiness describes the conditions that govern the states referred to as "satisfying" or "annoying." The execution of an action in response to a strong impulse is satisfying, whereas the blocking of that action or forcing it under other conditions is annoying.

In the classroom, Thorndike stated connections between ideas accounted for the major portion of "knowledge" in its popular sense; learning is connecting.

Hypothetico-deductive method

Clark Hull advocated rigorous S-R theory development to lead to the identification of the primary laws of psychology. The H-D method is a set of explicitly stated assumptions or postulates and operational definitions. Then hypotheses are deduced from the postulates with careful rigor. The hypotheses only become part of the theory when they pass the test of controlled experimentation. Only theories can contribute to the development of empirical knowledge.

Contiguity theory

Edwin Gutherie's informal and loosely organized law of contiguity provided a stark contrast to Hull. It states a combination of stimuli accompanied by a movement (muscle contraction) will tend to be followed by the same movement on its recurrence. Acts are combinations of movements, like drawing or reading and components of skills, like golf or typewriting.

Habits are cued responses associated with many different stimuli. Breaking habits requires breaking associations between the cues (eliciting behavior) and response. Punishment plays the role of altering behavior and can, if done properly in the presence of a stimulus that elicits inappropriate behavior, cause the subject to do something different (e.g., the correct behavior).

In the classroom, associate stimuli and responses appropriately (S-R theories). Students learn what the stimuli causes then to do.

Operant conditioning

Although he used Thorndike's law of effect, he disagreed with the S-R position that "drive stimuli" trigger all behavior like some unstoppable force. Instead, his research indicated that the outcome produced by an action is an important event in changing behavior. Singing a song, may "operate" on the environment to produce consequences such as praise, applause, or money. Singing is an operant.

S_d -> R -> S(_reinf)

The sequence of learning events is discriminating stimulus (S_d) ), like the latch on Thorndikes puzzle box, the subject's response, and the reinforcing stimulus (food). The latch becomes associated with the reinforced response, so the discriminative stimulus (latch) serves as a cue for behavior. Reinforcement is any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior (increases the frequency of responding).

Reinforcement

Thorndike's experiments showed that particular consequences influenced behavioral change. The two processes involving reinforcement that result in complex behaviors are variation of behavior and selection by consequence. Many behaviors are done, but only some are strengthened (reinforced). Three categories of reinforcement:

• primary reinforcers (food, shelter, water, sex);
• secondary reinforcers acquire power by association with events that already function as reinforcers;
• generalized reinforcers (positive and negative) work in a variety of settings.

Shaping

Shaping is a process that results in the acquisition of complex behaviors. The process involves a carefully designed program of discriminative stimuli and reinforcements for subtle changes in responses. Reinforcement is given for any little behavior that approximates a step in  completing the desired response. As the subject learns the desired response, there is a gradual withdrawal of prompts or cues. Shaping is the basis for programmed instruction.

Fading

Description

Behaviorists want to be able to predict with a high measure of certainty what people will do in specific situations. Given a stimulus (internal or external), the behaviorist wants to know what the reaction will be. Prediction of responses allows control.

The mind is a "black box" disconnected from the basic response of the body to a given stimulus. Since the behavioral psychologist does not believe the mind can be studied with any certainty, it therefore cannot be included in any stimulus-response equation.

The behavioral view of evolution and adaption argues that humans are no different than one-celled organisms; each is vulnerable and, therefore, had to learn to discriminate and avoid those things that were harmful and discriminate and approach those things necessary for survival. This is called the selectionist position, which Skinner advocated for a long time.

The role of the learner

Skinner stated the role of the learner is active responding, not passive; learners learn by doing, experiencing, and engaging in trial and error.

The nature of learning

E <=> B

Learning is behavioral change — environment (E) affects behavior (B)

Learning is a change in behavior due to experience or environment. Experience is the outcome of building associations between the occasion on which the behavior occurs (stimulus events) and the behavior itself (response events).

Focus on the individual.

The generality of learning principles

Relevance to ISD

Basis for innovations such as teaching machines, computer-assisted instruction, competency-based education (mastery learning), instructional design, situated cognition, social constructivism

Contributions to instructional technology: respondent learning, operant learning, observational learning

Stimulus-response or methodological behaviorism were traditionally used, and to a certain extent, still used in instructional technology as a research method. Antecedents are the independent variables (treatments) and the behaviors  (outcomes) are the dependent variables.

Gutherie's work suggested teachers associate stimuli and responses appropriately to lead the student to consistent performance

Training films developed for the military during WWII used a stimulus-response-reinforcement mechanism to achieve specific outcomes. Research from those efforts have had significant impact on the development of training films today.

Behavioral objectives were used by WWII researchers preparing training materials for the military. Later, Gagné pulled together task analysis and criterion-referenced testing.

Instructional design is generally considered a systematic process that uses learning theories from behavioral psychology (in part or whole) to plan and present instruction.

Skinner strongly states that behavioral repertoires in the classroom may be shaped in the same manner as other behaviors. Also, technology is needed to provide the large number of reinforcements for behavioral responses.

Reinforcement as a means for shaping behavior.