ISD KNowledge Base / Communications Theory

Primary contributors

Description

Technical perspective

Based on technology concepts of transmission (transmission paradigm) as a means for mass communication. Objects (messages, senders, receivers) follow laws of cause and effect. Shannon & Weaver (1949) = mathematical model of a one-way, linear transmission of messages.

Any interference (noise = !@#?~) in the literal transfer of the message works against the predictability of communication. Successful communication is dependent on the ability of senders and receivers to encode and decode mental intentions into/from various kinds of signals.

Psychological perspective

The key is that cognitive processes handle (filter) messages which places the emphasis on the perceptions of senders and receivers. So, communication only takes place only when the other party perceives it.

The goal of the exchange is to arrive at a mutually agreeable meaning between the sender and receiver, thus reducing the chances for  misinterpretation in the meanings each party has for the given message objects and communication events.

Psychologically based communication theories form the basis of Osgood and Schramm's model (1954) where two people  communicate via messages that the other processes through an encoder, interpreter, and decoder.

They believe each person is a complete communicative system with both sending and receiving abilities and where each person's own experiences determine the meaning of symbols (verbal and nonverbal signals and gestures). In other words, words have meaning for someone only if that person's personal experience provided a context for interpretation.

Sender and receiver must share similar experiences in order for communication to occur. By this model, the effects of communication are limited by the cognitive capacities of the sender/receiver.

Osgood and Schramm Model

Human beings pay attention to incoming messages selectively, and base their responses on prior experience and anticipation of future events. Two important research findings based on psychologically-based communication theory are: incidental learning (Schramm), social learning model (Bandura, the BoBo doll aggression experiment)

Social-cultural perspective

Theorists who support the social relationships on communication say that communication only occurs through social interaction. Each person's definition of and experience with objects, events, other people, and even oneself, is determined through a network of interpersonal relationships.

The meanings each person forms are products of social "negotiation" with other people and through these relationships the symbols we use to communicate and meanings of those symbols are determined.

The key to this theory is that the symbols, objects, events, and self-images that make up our world are the creation of a shared meaning through social communication.

Messages are constructed, filtered (by sender/receiver), and interpreted (given meaning) by interpersonal networks.

Whorf and Sapir (1956) hypothesized that the rules of any language system contain that society's culture, world view, and collective identity. Language, in turn, affects the way one perceives the world; words define reality.

Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955) conceived of a two-step flow model of mass communication. Their study focused on the content of political media messages in the 1940 presidential election and the effect of various influences on voting decisions, including radio. Findings showed limited media impact.

• Step 1 — opinion leaders in a community seek media content on political issues, then
• Step 2 —they filter and pass along political info to their social contacts.

Relevance to ISD

Communications theory is one of the pillars that supports instructional design processes and procedures. The other pillars are systems theory, learning theories, and instructional theory. See, the Foundations of ISD. Communicatio theory is a key process in communicating an innovation, as described in Systems and Change.

Cressey (1934) found that film has potential as an informal learning instrument, particular with respect to areas associated with social deviance. He argues that film's ability to educate was the result of the combination of important inherent qualitities in the medium: wide variation in content, gripping narrative techniques, and appeal to "basic human motives and wishes." Films compared to traditional classroom teaching, offer an irresistible and oppositional new source of knowledge for children.

Incidental and formal learning occurs in television edutainment programming for children, such as Sesame Street, Where in the World is Carmen San Diego, and Blues Clues. These program have goals to teach numbers, literacy, shapes, colors, pattern recognition, music, problem solving, emotional intelligence, and a host of other social, cultural, and psychological concepts.

Education at every level, as practiced by every educator, is about communication. This sender/receiver process of  exchanging coded messages for the other to interpret by negotiation of meaning is the basic transport medium of information. Information is inert until it is delivered by one person (entity) and understood by another, where it is transformed into knowledge by the receiver.

The art and practice of good communication skills (based on research in communication theory) should be the heart of every educator, whether first grade teacher, corporate trainer,  or college professor.

The medium of communication should be chosen to best suit the learner, the content, and the technical possibilities of the learning environment.