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"Theoretical" Introduction
The seven learning or instructional-design
theories that I believe are the most important in the field
of instructional systems design are included in this knowledge
base. Each theory (or principle) is described in terms of
the most prominent contributors, most pertinent features,
and a justification of why it is important to the field
of instructional systems design.
What is a theory?
According to Smith and Ragan (1999),
a theory is a set of statements organized in a way to allow
us to explain, predict, or control events. ISD draws from
descriptive theory and prescriptive theory. Descriptive
theory describes phenomena
as they are hypothesized to exist. Many learning theories
describe how learning occurs. Prescriptive theories
give directions or guidelines for actions to take that will
lead to certain results. Instructional theories are generally
prescriptive in nature: they suggest that if instruction
includes certain features, then certain degrees of learning
outcomes are likely to result.
Learning and instructional
design theories have had the most significant impact on
the principles of instructional design. Other contributing
theory bases are communication theory and general systems
theory.
Krathwohl (1998) offers
a meaning of theory. In general terms a theory is an explanation
of behavior (and phenomena) that makes logical sense and
is characterized as either (1) consistent with the research
and explanations that preceded it or (2) soundly negates
or modifies them. Theories help researchers to identify
significant variables, unify a variety of findings, assimilate
them into a cohesive and interrelated body, and identify
areas for further research. Similarly, Borg and Gall (1983)
define theory as a system for explaining a set of phenomena
by specifying constructs and the laws that relate these
constructs to each other.
What
is a learning theory?
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Instructional
design is about promoting the cognitive processes that
lead to learning. Learning theories are of critical
interest to instructional designers, namely because
those theories are descriptive—attempting to describe,
explain, and predict learning. Two major
categories
of learning theories that have influence instructional
design procedures and decisions are behavioral learning
theories and cognitive learning theories.
Behaviorism
was the predominant school of thought in the first half
of the twentieth century. According to the behaviorist
view, the only things worth studying about human learning
are observable behaviors. While most behaviorists do
not deny the existence of mental activity, they do not
speculate about these thinking processes or other unobservable
phenomena. |
Today, cognitive learning theories are the
dominant influence on instructional design practice. Cognitive
learning theory generally corresponds to a rationalist philosophy
and frequently appears compatible with the primary principles
of constructivism. The difference of cognitive learning
theory compared with behavioral theory is that cognitivists
place much more emphasis on factors within the learner and
less emphasis on factors within the environment. Cognitive
psychology has influenced learning theory in five major
ways (Schuell, 1986):
- the view of learning is an active, constructive
process
- the presence of high-level processes in
learning
- the cumulative nature of learning and
the corresponding role played by prior knowledge concern
for the way knowledge is represented and organized in
memory concern for analyzing learning tasks and performance
in terms of the cognitive processes that are involved
- From this list, it is clear that cognitive
learning theories focus on the learner, namely to explain
learning in terms of cognitive processes, structures,
and representations that are believed to operate within
the learner (Smith & Ragan, 1999). A primary examples
of cognitive learning theory influence on instructional
design practice is the information-processing theory and
its subordinate schema theory (Rummelhart, 1980), and
Level of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).
Cognitive learning theories themselves do
not offer guidance in how to teach, English grammar, for
example. To identify useful methods for particular situations,
then an instructional-design theory is needed. In contrast
to learning theories, instructional-design theories are
more directly and easily applied to educational problems.
They describe the specific events in the environment or
methods of instruction that are outside the learner, that
facilitate learning. A learning theory describes what goes
on inside the learner's head when learning occurs. It must
be stated that it is important for an instructional designer
to be thoroughly versed in the fundamental theories that
support the field, namely theories of learning and human
development. These theories are useful for understanding
why an instructional-design theory works. As an analogy,
think of learning theories as the foundation and instructional-design
theories as the house built upon it.
What is an instructional-design
theory?
Instructional-design theories, of all theory
bases, are those most often used by instructional designers.
According to Reigeluth (1999) in the "green book," Instructional-Design
Theories and Models, Volume II,
an instructional-design theory is a theory that offers explicit
guidance on how to better help people learn and develop.
The concepts of learn and develop may include cognitive,
emotional, social, physical, and spiritual.
Gagné and Dick (1983) describe instructional-design
theories as:
an attempt to relate specified events of
instruction to learning processes and learning outcomes
- based on the knowledgebase of learning
research and theory
- prescriptive in the sense that they attempt
to identify conditions of instruction which will optimize
learning, retention, and learning transfer
- expected to provide, at minimum, rational
description of causal relationships between procedures
used to teach and their behavioral outcomes, preferably
enhanced human performance
Reigeluth (1999) describes the characteristics
of an instructional-design theory as:
- An orientation towards design, focusing on the means to attain goals for learning
and development. It is not description oriented, which
emphasizes the results of given events, like the information-processing
theory. Design oriented (or goal oriented) theories are
practical and useful to educators, showing them how to
achieve their goals. They are prescriptive.
- Identification of methods of instruction,
which are ways to support and facilitate instruction,
and the situations in which those methods should
and should not be used. These two components are necessary
for all instructional-design theory and indicate that
methods are situational, not universal in application.
- The methods of instruction can be
broken into more detailed component methods,
which provide more guidance to educators. These parts'
can be made up of smaller methods. The additional implication
is methods have different ‘kinds' of characteristics.
Outcomes are dependent on the situation. ‘Criteria'
can be provided that the method should meet. The level
of guidance can vary.
- The methods are probabilistic rather
than deterministic, which means they increase the chances
of attaining the goals rather than ensuring attainment
of the goals. The goal of an instructional-design theory
is to attain the highest possible probability of the desired
results occurring.
- An instructional-design theory's
goal (or design) has a value
or philosophy that underlies it. Values play a key role
in deciding what goals to pursue via the selection of
methods offered to attain those goals.
Instructional design theory vs. instructional
design model
For many graduate
students in instructional design, the concept of an instructional
design model is confusing.
No doubt the imprecise use of terminology within the ISD
field has lead to a large gray area of understanding. Instructional
design models may be defined as the visualized representations
of an instructional design process, showing the main elements
or phases, and their relationships. More commonly known
by their names, Dick & Carey Model, ADDIE Model, Kemp
Model, ICARE Model, and ASSURE Model, these models share
three major activities: analysis, strategy development,
and evaluation. I find it more useful to call
these "systems" level models, instructional systems
design models. (Just to add more confusion in the attempt
to clarify!) Instructional design models, in my opinon,
serve the needs of designers at the unit, course, or curriculum
level.
Every model has some
attributes not universally seen in all the others, such
as inclusion of context analysis as a function of the design
process, sequencing of test development, and the formative
evaluation. Because of the limitations of two-dimensional
graphic representations and to simplify a discussion of
the activities of instructional design, the models have
an unintended, yet starkly apparent attribute, sequentiality.
Designers from every experience level may sometimes follow
this sequence; however, more commonly circumstances may
cause the designer to modify the sequence of design activities.
Many times the steps within a certain phase may occur concurrently.
Considering the nature of the mental activity designers
engage when implementing an instructional design model,
the most accurate model would resemble an interwoven, nonlinear
relationship of activity, like a knotted tapestry (Smith
& Ragan, 1999).
See Instructional
Design & Development/ISD Models for more information
about ISD Models.
References
Borg, W.R., &
Gall, M.D. (1983). Educational research: An introduction.
New York: Longman.
Gagné, R.M.,
& Dick, W. (1983). Instructional psychology. Annual
Review of Psychology, 34, 261-295.
Krathwohl, D.R. (1998).
Methods of educational and social science research: An
integrated approach, 2nd ed. New York: Longman.
Reigeluth, C.M., (1999).
What is instructional-design theory, and how is it changing?.
In C.M. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional-design theories
and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory, volume
ii. (pp. 425-459). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Smith, P.L., &
Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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