Charles E. Serface

Professor Warner

English 112B

6 December 2006

Promoting Cultural and Personal Identity Development through Mythology: A Unit Plan

            In Myths to Live By, Joseph Campbell outlines four functions that mythology fulfills. The first he calls �the mystical function� through which individuals waken and maintain a �sense of awe and gratitude to the mystery dimension of the universe� (214). Instead of feeling fear in the face of this mystery, however, individuals participate in it, because the mystery of the universe reflects the mystery within their inner beings (215). In other words, mythologies function to aid individuals in understanding themselves, and the inner nature of humanity. They provide models for the ongoing journey toward self-knowledge and identity development.

            Campbell�s second function for living mythologies involve their abilities to offer images of the universe that match the knowledge, the sciences, and the fields of action of the people that specific mythologies address (215). If mythologies cannot adapt to changing times, then they die. The ancient, world mythologies still existing today do so because they offer universal images, or archetypes, that speak to human souls living across time. Additionally, the narratives through which these mythologies express their archetypes attract the attention of poets and artists, who retell and transform traditional myths into new forms that revitalize mythological lessons for new audiences. In these ways, mythologies evolve or die.

            Through its third function, says Campbell, a mythology validates, supports, and imprints the norms and moral order of the societies in which persons live (215). This calls to mind old-word storytellers, bards, and sages who educated their cultures� young in the oral tradition. Each myth or legend relates the rewards or follies inherent in following or not following the moral order. Moreover, mythologies provide lesson plans for instructing youths about how best to behave and survive within a given civilization. In short, they define ideals to which all may aspire. Although great variety abounds between cultures, many admire and foster the same virtues, such as honesty, loyalty, courage, and perseverance when challenged by great hardship.

            The fourth and final function of living mythologies defines their role as guides for individuals in how to live strongly, healthily, and harmoniously through the �whole foreseeable course of a useful life� (215). All of Campbell�s mythological functions inform this unit plan, but his final function influences it the most, in that this unit hopes to channel the power of mythology into not only instructing students about the facts of mythology, but in how to use it to nurture their personal and cultural identity development as well.

            California Educational Standards dictate that high-school students shall learn about Greek and Roman mythology and how the English language has adapted terms into common use, such as �narcissism,� �echo,� and �aegis.� This unit plan addresses those issues, but it addresses much more as well. Instructors should encourage students to explore mythologies relevant to their cultural backgrounds or specific interests. For example, students might want to explore African, Mesoamerican, or Pacific Islander mythology. As a result, students will gain perspective on their culture, other cultures, and themselves. The exercises and assignments discussed below will hopefully enhance students� chances for doing so.

Perhaps no one understands the transformational power of myth better than Ovid, who recounts over 200 Greek and Roman legends in his Metamorphoses. Ovid states his purpose with these opening lines:

                        My mind leads me to speak now of forms changed

                        into new bodies: O gods above, inspire

                        this undertaking (which you�ve changed as well)

                        and guide my poem its epic sweep

                        from the world�s beginning to the present day. (1-5)

Not only does Ovid recount mythological stories, he structures them to create a unified meaning that runs through the whole Metamorphoses. In his own way, Ovid accomplishes two tasks simultaneously: he fulfills Campbell�s mythological functions while formulating his own theory of mythology. In fact, his versions of Greek and Roman myths have inspired later writers like Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Salman Rushdie who themselves have recast mythological themes for audiences specific to their eras. The enormousness of Ovid�s impact on world literature demands that instructors must expose students to his poetry.

Indeed, many of Ovid�s stories detail actual physical changes that the gods bring upon characters, such as Daphne becoming a laurel tree, Syrinx a reed pipe, and Arachne a spider. Still this idea of transformation relates to identity development, whether positive or negative. For this reason, Ovid�s work stands as the canonical, centerpiece of this unit plan. Throughout the course of this plan, instructors should discuss selected readings from Ovid to highlight the concepts of transformation and identity development Also, instructors can include discussions about Jungian archetypes and the theories of Joseph Campbell to give students material with which they can organize what they learn. Finally, at the end of the unit instructors can pull together common themes underlying the different cosmologies on which students report or create to show how humanity becomes unified by its need for mythology.

 

 

Launching the Unit

            Before reading selections from Metamorphoses with students, consider using one of the following as a pre-reading activity.

1. Many young adults enjoy comic books and fantasy or science fiction films. Instructors might design PowerPoint or overhead-projector presentations showing visual images from comic books and clips of films featuring characters or themes based on mythology. Primarily these presentations could focus on the Marvel Comics versions of Thor and Hercules, and Captain Marvel from DC Comics. Hercules represents a classical hero who has been updated for modern times, while Thor and Captain Marvel transform and undergo identity development by receiving divine powers. To broaden the cultural aspect of their introductions, instructors may include comic books from sources other than Greek and Norse mythologies. For example, Bruce Bohmani�s Rostam stems from the Persian epic, the Shahmeneh, and Hyun Se Lee�s manhwa series, Mythology of the Heavens, relies heavily on Korean mythology. In their presentations, instructors should use films that will inspire the interest of young adults, such as Clash of the Titans and Ulysses, as well. The narrative of each film draws from Greek mythology and employs early forms of special effects that will amuse students while helping them to better digest the underlying, archetypal messages of cultural ideals, transformation, and identity development. Can the students think of any other sources from popular culture � television, art, music, other films or comics -- that have been influenced by any world mythology? Do the concepts of transmitting ideals, transformation, and identity development apply to these as well?
2. Discussion questions or questions for students� writing journals:
1. Write about any myths or legends to which you were exposed while growing up. Did your grandparents or parents share any stories or ideas from cultural myth or folklore? Think about bedtime or scary stories you might have heard. How did these affect how your view of an ideal or your identity?
2. Many people consider some spiritual practices as myth. How do students feel about this assumption? Does it alter their definitions of myth? Can they identify a spiritual practice, either their own or someone else�s that others might misunderstand?
3. Beyond stories about gods, heroes, or monsters, can students think of any elements in contemporary society that serves the functions of myth? In what ways does current, mainstream society communicate ideals that remind them of myth and legend?
3. In �The Shield of Achilles,� W. H. Auden references Homer�s Iliad to make a statement about war. He alters a classical image from Greek mythology � Thetis�s commission of a shield and armor for her son, Achilles, from the god of blacksmiths, Hephaestos -- as narrated by Homer. On the famous shield of Achilles appears not the scene Homer depicts or Thetis expects, but horrible war scenes contemporary to the twentieth century.

�The Shield of Achilles�

W. H. Auden

                                         

                                          She looked over his shoulder

                                          For vines and olive trees,

                                          Marble well-governed cities

                                          And ships upon untamed seas,

                                          But there on the shining metal

                                          His hands had put instead

                                          An artificial wilderness

                                          And a sky like lead.

 

                                          A plain without feature, bare and brown,

                                          No blade of grass, no sign of neighborhood,

                                          Nothing to eat and nowhere to sit down,

                                          Yet, congregated on its blankness, stood

                                          An unintelligible multitude,

                                          A million eyes, a million boots in line,

                                          Without expression, waiting for a sign.

 

                                          Out of the air a voice without a face

                                          Proved by statistics that some cause was just

                                          In tones as dry and level as the place:

                                          No one was cheered and nothing was discussed;

                                          Column by column in a cloud of dust

                                          They marched away enduring a belief

                                          Whose logic brought them, somewhere else, to grief.

 

                                          She looked over his shoulder

                                          For ritual pieties,

                                          White flower-garlanded heifers,

                                          Libation and sacrifice,

                                          But there on the shining metal

                                          Where the altar should have been,

                                          She saw by his flickering forge-light

                                          Quite another scene.

 

                                          Barbed wire enclosed an arbitrary spot

                                          Where bored officials lounged (one cracked a joke)

                                          And sentries sweated for the day was hot:

                                          A crowd of ordinary decent folk

                                          Watched from without and neither moved nor spoke

                                          As three pale figures were led forth and bound

                                          To three posts driven upright from the ground.

 

                                          The mass and majesty of this world, all

                                          That carries weight and always weighs the same

                                          Lay in the hands of others; they were small

                                          And could not hope for help and no help came:

                                          What their foes like to do was done, their shame

                                          Was all the worst could wish; they lost their pride

                                          And died as men before their bodies died.

 

                                          She looked over his shoulder

                                          For athletes at their games,

                                          Men and women in a dance

                                          Moving their sweet limbs

                                          Quick, quick to music,

                                          But there on the shining shield

                                          His hands had set no dancing-floor

                                          But a weed-choked field.

 

                                          A ragged urchin, aimless and alone,

                                          Loitered about that vacancy; a bird

                                          Flew up to safety from his well-aimed stone:

                                          That girls are raped, that two boys knife a third,

                                          Were axioms to him, who�d never heard

                                          Of any world where promises were kept,

                                          Or one could weep because another wept.

 

                                          The thin-lipped armorer,

                                          Hephaestos, hobbled away,

                                         Thetis of the shining breasts

                                          Cried out in dismay

                                          At what the god had wrought

                                         To please her son, the strong

                                          Iron-hearted man-slaying Achilles

                                         Who would not live long.

 

How does Auden�s use of mythology support his statement about war? This poem illustrates how poets, writers, and artists mine the treasures that mythology offers. New interpretations surface constantly as individuals rework age-old narratives to suit new purposes in changing times. Myths endure not because of surface-level, plot-related details, but because of underlying, universal themes that ignite imaginations across time. Like Auden, Ovid reworks classical Greek myth to suit his own artistic purposes, not only to retell myths but also to retell them in a way that highlights his themes of transformation and identity development. What contemporary stories, poems, or artwork can students find that recreates traditional myths other than Greek ones in this way? What are the sources of these myths, and how has the modern-day writer or artist altered them to create new myths out of the old?

Extending the Unit

      As groups or individually, have students work with the texts, movies, and websites listed under the Annotated Bibliography section below. Students can use these references in many ways. To support the overall theme of using mythology to develop identity, instructors should encourage students to undertake projects that allow them to explore their own cultural backgrounds or any other they choose. Students may seek sources other than those on the Annotated Bibliography, but they should consult with the instructor when doing so.

1. Students may select a young adult or science fiction/fantasy novel from the Annotated Bibliography, compare it to an appropriate source in one of the mythology guides, and prepare written reports for the instructor and oral reports for the class. Presentations should focus on what traditional mythology chosen authors references and how they have altered the originals to create new myths.
2. Either as a group or individually, students may choose to report on cosmologies depending on their interests or cultural backgrounds. Sources can include those from the Annotated Bibliography, ones that students find on their own, and interviews from relatives or experts on the myths in which they are interested. Groups or individuals will present their projects, which should include both written information and art, to the class. What are the basic tenets underlying their chosen cosmologies? What gods, goddesses, heroes, or legends do students find interesting? What has it taught them about their individual backgrounds? What do the myths and legends of particular cultures convey about ideals within that culture or cultures in general? In what way, if any, has exploring a cosmology affected students� identities?
3. Merriam-Webster�s Collegiate Dictionary defines �mythopoeia� as �a creating of myths� or �a giving rise to myths� (822). Neil Gaiman practices this concept in his novels, American Gods and Anansi Boys. In each, traditional gods and goddesses have transformed to suit the needs of worshippers and to survive in changing times. Also, new gods have arisen to represent modern concepts -- such as the government, television, and the Internet -- that contemporary society worships or fears. As a group or individually, students may use one or more mythology guides and websites from the Annotated Bibliography to create myths featuring a pantheon of gods that represents trends from current times. The finished product should include narratives in which the gods and heroes of these new cosmologies play parts and artwork to illustrate their appearances. The written portion of this assignment may be in either prose or verse. Students may turn in the artwork portion of their projects as comic books or films.

Annotated Bibliography

            This list of books, movies, and websites will help students explore mythology. Instructors can choose any references from this selection that they deem suitable, as it covers a range of readings for different grade levels and abilities. Note: Plot summaries are courtesy of Amazon.com or the author of this unit plan. Full citations of all texts, films, and websites appear in the Works Cited section of this unit plan.

One: Young Adult Literature Selections

• Goddess of Yesterday by Caroline Cooney: Cooney tells the tale of Anaxandra, the daughter of the chief of a tiny, island nation in the Aegean. A king of another island nation, Nicander, kidnaps Anaxandra and takes her to his kingdom to become a companion for his daughter, Callisto. Unfortunately, pirates attack Nicander�s island, and once again kidnap Anaxandra. Mistaking her for Callisto, King Menalaus of Sparta offers her asylum, and Anaxandra becomes a witness to the Trojan War.

• American Gods and Anansi Boys by Neil Gaiman: Set in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, these novels present modernized images of gods and goddesses from various traditions. In American Gods, the central character, Shadow, finds himself embroiled in events surrounding a potential war between old and new gods. In the sequel, Anansi Boys, Fat Charlie discovers that his father is the African trickster god, Anansi, whom Gaiman characterizes as �Mr. Nancy.�

• The Lightning Thief and The Sea of Monsters by Rick Riordan: Percy (short for �Perseus� Jackson has spent his childhood moving from school to school until landing at Yancy Academy, a private school for troubled teens in upstate New York. He loves his mom, but unfortunately she is married to �Smelly� Gabe Ugliano, who makes Percy�s home life difficult. Monsters from Greek legend begin attacking Percy, and he discovers that he is a �half-blood,� the half-human son of a Greek god. After arriving at Camp Half-Blood, a summer camp for half-bloods, he further learns that he is the son of Poseidon, god of the sea. Percy sets out on heroic quests with his friends, a satyr named Grover Underwood and the daughter of Athena, Annabeth Chase. These novels are the first two in a projected series.

• Quiver and Quicksilver by Stephanie Spinner: In Quiver, Spinner retells the tale of Atalanta, abandoned in the woods because of her gender. Saved by the goddess of the hunt, Artemis, Atalanta grows up to become a talented archer and the �swiftest of mortals.� In Quicksilver, Spinner relates several episodes involving Hermes, the winged messenger of the gods. The adventures in which he participates include the Trojan War, the legend of Perseus, and the Odyssey.

Two: Other Works of Science Fiction and Fantasy

• Mythago Wood by Robert Holdstock: The mystery of Rynhope Wood, Britain�s last fragment of primeval forest, consumes George Huxley�s entire life. After his death, his sons continue his work. Inside the Wood, which they discover is larger inside than out, the sons discover a place where myths come to life in the form of �mythagos� that can change individuals forever.

• The Paradise War, The Silver Hand, and The Endless Knot by Stephen R. Lawhead: Lawhead incorporates elements from Celtic mythology into this trilogy, collectively known as The Song of Albion. The action begins when Lewis Gillies drives north from Scotland to find a mythical creature in a misty glen. Instead, Lewis enters a mystical place where two worlds meet, ours and the Otherworld, or Albion, of Celtic lore. In Albion, he becomes a participant in politics and a war between good and evil.

• Ilium and Olympos by Dan Simmons: During the late twenty-first century, the Trojan War rages at the foot of Olympos Mons on Mars. Zeus and his immortal family watch and meddle with the conflict while scholar Thomas Hockenberry stirs the archenemies Achilles and Hector to join forces against Zeus. Meanwhile, mechanical creatures that once catered to the remnants of the last remaining humans of Earth mass together to exterminate, not serve.

• The Crooked Letter by Sean Williams: Australian author Williams draws on worldwide myths and legends in this first novel of a new fantasy series. After Seth Castillo is stabbed and killed, his spirit travels to the Second Realm, a place full of monsters. His mirror twin, Hadrian, then comes to the First Realm. The psychic link between the two draws the two realms together, precipitating a world-warping catastrophe.

Three: Mythology Guides

• African Mythology by Linda Jacobs Altman and William Sauts: Altman and Sauts collect African myths that feature creator gods, tricksters, shape-changing animals, and heroes who overcome enormous hardship.

• Bulfinch�s Mythology by Thomas Bulfinch: Arguably, Bulfinch�s work stands as the most famous edited collection of Greek and Roman, Celtic, Asian, and Norse mythologies. The unabridged Modern Library edition includes all three volumes: The Age of Fable, The Age of Chivalry, and Legends of Charlemagne.

• Chinese Mythology: An Introduction by Anne M. Birrell: A comprehensive introduction to Chinese mythology for both experts and general readers, Birrell�s work pulls together a wide variety of fragmented and refractory narratives.

• The Power of Myth and Myths to Live By by Joseph Campbell: For Campbell, mythology is the song of the universe, the music of the spheres. The first book outlines Campbell�s interviews with Bill Moyers, while the second collects a series of twenty-five talks on mythology that Campbell delivered in The Great Hall of The Cooper Union Forum in New York City. In both books, Campbell discusses his belief that all myths and religions follow certain archetypes and are not exclusive to a single people, region, or religion. Campbell draws together seemingly disparate elements from all over the world to formulate theories on the functions of myths. Of all Campbell�s works, these two are the most accessible to teenagers.

• Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others by Stephanie Dalley: The ancient civilization of Mesopotamia thrived between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers over 4,000 years ago. This text provides summaries of all the important myths created in a land that would one day become the Middle East. Dalley includes a glossary of deities, place names, and key terms as well.

• D�aulaire�s Book of Greek Myths and D�aulaire�s Book of Norse Myths by Ingre and Edgar Parin D�aulaire: In these two volumes, the D�aulaires retell and illustrate famous Greek and Norse myths for a young-reader audience. Instructors should use these texts when teaching myths to younger students in the middle-school grades or grade nine.

• American Indian Myths and Legends by Richard Ergoes and Alfonso Ortiz: The editors gather 160 tales from eighty tribal groups to show the rich diversity of the Native-American tradition. The book features over 100 illustrations as well.

• Heroes, Gods, and Monsters of the Greek Myths by Bernard Evslin: Accessible to all high-school grade levels, this book contains entries describing all the major gods and heroes of Greek myth. Evslin also includes a great section, �Mythology Becomes Language,� that will help students see how Greek myth has affected the English language.

• Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes by Edith Hamilton: Another classic in the study of mythology, Hamilton�s text has been introducing readers to Greek myth and legend for over fifty years. Like Bulfinch, she offers a section on Norse myths as well. Especially useful is her �Brief Myths� section that gives synopses of important stories and ideas.

• Middle Eastern Mythology by S. H. Hooke: Hooke discusses the role of customs, cults, and hero worship in the myths of the Egyptians, Babylonians, Hittites and Canaanites. Hooke considers mythological elements within Jewish apocalyptic literature and the Old Testament as well.

• Metamorphoses by Ovid (trans. Charles Martin): An enormous influence on worldwide literature, Ovid accomplishes two tasks with his collection. First, he beautifully describes important myths from the Greek and Roman tradition. Second, he unifies these different stories through the theme of transformation, which relates to the question of identity. As Jung and Campbell would centuries later, Ovid speculates about the functions of myth. Charles Martin�s translation remains faithful to the Latin original while using an English that is accessible to high-school students.

• World Mythology (Second Edition) by Donna Rosenberg: This anthology features myths from Greece and Rome, Northern Europe, the British Isles the Middle East, Asia, Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the Americas. Rosenberg bowdlerizes certain myths, such as the Egyptian myth about how Isis reconstitutes Osiris�s body except for his penis. Nonetheless, World Mythology is a tremendous source written in language that is accessible to high-school students.

Four: Films

• Clash of the Titans: In this fun movie, special-effects legend Ray Harryhausen uses stop-motion animation to illustrate the story of Perseus. Only based on the original legend, the screenplay wanders far from the traditional narrative, but the underlying archetypes related to the legend remain intact.

• Ulysses: This version of The Odyssey stars Kirk Douglas as Ulysses and features early forms of special effects that might attract teens to the idea of myth. As with Clash of the Titans, the screenplay of this film strays from Homer�s original epic. However, the main themes and archetypes survive.

 

Five: Internet Websites

• Encyclopedia Mythica: This comprehensive site provides information about myths and folklore from Africa, the Americas, Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. <http://www.pantheon.org>
• Odyssey Online: Supported by the Michael C. Carlos Museum of Emory University, this site promotes the use of artwork to supplement lessons about mythology. The site also has links to ideas for mythology lesson plans. <http://www.carlos.emory.edu/ODYSSEY/Teacher/index.htm>

• Rick Riordan Author Site: A former history and English teacher, Riordan offers links to sites dedicated to teaching and learning about worldwide myths. He includes samples of lesson plans as well. <http://www.rickriordan.com>

Concluding Activities

            As the unit concludes, students should have not only a sense of how mythology helps to develop both individual and cultural identities, but how underneath perceived differences lie many similarities. After students have presented their projects in class, instructors can tie together what each report has communicated, unifying them to show how humans from all cultures share the need to generate myths, to propagate and explore ideals, and to promote identity development. Throughout the unit, instructors will have been leading discussions on Ovid, archetypes, and other concepts related to the general topic of mythology. At the end of the unit, instructors can apply these concepts to materials students have supplied in their presentations and reports.

            Also, this unit should conclude with an activity that encourages students to continue studying mythology. In-class writing assignments might help students explore unanswered questions that arose while hearing the presentations of other students. What about the mythologies other students� have covered would they like to learn? What within those other mythologies remind students of the ones they covered? How have students changed personally while completing this unit? Is there any character or story that might help students solve any current dilemmas in there life? How will what they have learned about mythology affect their further study of literature? Instructors should not grade these final in-class writings so that students will feel encouraged to respond as personally as possible.

            In The Power of Myth, Joseph Campbell defines the difference between a myth and a dream:

                        A dream is a personal experience of that deep, dark ground that is the support of       our conscious lives, and a myth is that society�s dream. The myth is the public dream   and the dream is the private myth. If your private myth, your dream, happens to coincide    with that of the society, you�re in good accord with your group. If it isn�t, you�ve got an             adventure in the dark forest ahead of you. (48)

But public myth does supply individuals with tools on how to navigate that dark forest as

individual dreamers. Jason, Gilgamesh, Atalanta and Rama can inspire contemporary teens who

feel outside the fold. Exposure to the gods and heroes of world mythology who persevere provides power and support to all in the continuing, transformational journey toward identity.

Works Cited

Altman, Linda Jacobs, and William Sauts Bock, eds. African Mythology. Berkeley Heights, NJ:

            Enslow Publishers, 2003.

Amazon.com. 2006. 4 December 2006. <http://www.amazon.com>

Auden, W. H. �The Shield of Achilles.� Auden: Poems. Ed. Edward Mendelson. New York:

            Knopf, 1991. 117-9.

Bahmani, Bruce. Rostam: Tales from the Shahmeneh. Los Angeles: Hyperwerks, 2004.

Birrell, Anne M. Chinese Mythology: An Introduction. Baltimore, ML: Johns Hopkins UP,

            1999.

Bulfinch, Thomas, ed. Bulfinch�s Mythology. New York: Modern Library, 2004.

Campbell, Joseph. The Power of Myth. New York: Anchor, 1988.

---. Myths to Live By. New York: Penguin, 1993.

Clash of the Titans. Dir. Desmond Davis. Per. Harry Hamlin, Laurence Olivier, and Claire Bloom. Warner Brothers, 1981.

Cooney, Caroline B. Goddess of Yesterday. New York: Laurel Leaf, 2003.

Dalley, Stephanie, ed. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others.

            New York: Oxford World�s Classics, 1998.

D�aulaire, Ingre and Edgar Parin D�aulaire, ed. D�aulaire�s Book of Greek Myths. New York:

            Delacorte Books for Young Readers, 1992.

---. D�aulaire�s Book of Norse Myths. New York: Delacorte Books for Young Readers, 1992.

Encyclopedia Mythica. 4 December 2006. <http:/?pantheon.org>

Erdoes, Richard, and Alfonso Ortiz, eds. American Indian Myths and Legends. New York:

            Pantheon, 1985.

Evslin, Bernard. Heroes, Gods, and Monsters of the Greek Myths. New York: Laurel Leaf,

            2001.

Gaiman, Neil. American Gods. New York: Headline, 2001.

---. Anansi Boys. New York: William Morrow, 2005.

Hamilton, Edith. Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes. New York: Warner Books,

            1949.

Holdstock, Robert. Mythago Wood. New York: Orb, 1984.

Hooke, S.H., ed. Middle Eastern Mythology. New York: Dover, 2004.

Lawhead, Stephen. The Paradise War. Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2006.

---. The Silver Hand. Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2006.

---. The Endless Knot. Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2006.

Lee, Hyun Se. Mythology of the Heavens 1: God of War. New York: CPM Manhwa, 2004.

Merriam-Webster�s Collegiate Dictionary. 11^th Ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 2005.

Odyssey Online. 2006. Michael C. Carlos Museum of Emory University. 4 December 2006.

            <http://www.carlos.emory.edu/ODYSSEY/Teachers/index.htm>

Ovid. Metamorphoses. Trans. Charles Martin. New York: W. W. Norton, 2004.

Riordan, Rick. The Lightning Thief. New York: Miramax Books, 2005.

---. The Sea of Monsters. New York: Miramax Books, 2006.

Rick Riordan Author Site. 2006. Rick Riordan. 4 December 2006.

            <http://www.rickriordan.com>

Rosenberg, Donna, ed. World Mythology: An Anthology of the Great Myths and Epics. 2^nd ed.

            Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Publishing Group, 1994.

Simmons, Dan. Ilium. New York: HarperTorch, 2003.

---. Olympos. New York: HarperTorch, 2005.

Spinner, Stephanie. Quiver. New York: Knopf, 2002.

---. Quicksilver. New York: Knopf, 2005.

Williams, Sean. The Crooked Letter. New York: Pyr, 2006.

Ulysses. Dir. Mario Camerini. Perf. Kirk Douglas and Anthony Quinn. Fox Lorber, 1955.